******** varieties (chapter 4)
Linguistic varieties and multilingual nations
Over half the world's population is bilingual and many people are multilingual. One may speaks many ********s, one ******** maybe his ethnic or tribal ******** or tribal ********, another maybe the ******** of his education, another may serve as a useful ******** of wider communication in particular contest, such as the market-place, or with outsiders or tourists.
Vernacular ********s
The term vernacular is used in a number of ways. It generally refers to a ******** which has not been standardized and which does not have official status. Vernaculars are usually the first ********s learned by people in multilingual communities, and they are often used for a relatively narrow range of informal functions. There are three components of the meaning of the term, vernacular. The most basic refers to the fact that a vernacular is an un-codified or un-standardized variety. The second refers to the way it is acquired – in the home, as a first variety. The third is the fact that it is used for relatively circumscribed functions. Some have extended the term to refer to any ******** which is not the official ******** of the country. The term simply means a ******** which is not an official ******** in a particular con****.
Standard ********s
The term standard is even more slippery than vernacular because it too is used in many different ways by linguists. Here is one definition which can serve as a useful starting point. A standard variety is generally one which is written, and which has undergone some degree of regularization or codification ( for example, in a grammar and a dictionary). It is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a community, and it is used for H functions alongside a diversity of L varieties. The development of standard English illustrates the three essential criteria which characterize a standard: it was an influential or prestigious variety, it was codified and stabilized, and it served H functions in the it was used for communication at court, for literature and for administration.
Lingua Franca
The term lingua franca describes a ******** serving as a regular means of communication between different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech community. A lingua franca is a ******** used for communication between people whose first ******** differs.
Pidgins and creoles
Pidgins
A pidgin is a ******** which has no native speakers. Pidgins develop as a means of communication between people who do not have a common ********. So a pidgin is no one's native ********. Pidgins seem particularly likely to arise when *** groups with different ********s are communicating is a situation where there is also a third dominant ********. Pidgins are used almost exclusively for referential rather than effective functions. Pidgin ********s are created from the combined efforts of people who speak different ********s. All ********s involved may contribute to the sounds, the vocabulary, and the grammatical features, but to different extents, and some additional features may emerge which are unique to the new variety. Usually the prestige ******** tends to supply more of the vocabulary, while the vernacular ********s have more influence on the grammar of the developing pidgin. The ******** which supplies most of the vocabulary is known as the lexifier (or sometimes the superstrate) ********, while the ******** which influence the grammatical structure are called the substrate. Pidgins develop to serve a very narrow range of functions in a very restricted set of domains, they tend to have a simplified structure and a small vocabulary compared with fully developed ********s. For pidgin ******** which is used only for trade, a few hundred words are sufficient. To sum up, a pidgin ******** has three identifying characteristics:
1. It is used in restricted domains and functions
2. It has a simplified structure compared to the source ********
3. It generally has low prestige and attracts negative attitudes – especially from outsiders.
Creoles
A Creole is a pidgin which has acquired native speakers. A Creole is a pidgin which has expanded in structure and vocabulary to express the range of meanings and serve the range of functions required of a first ********. Once a crele has developed it can be used for all the functions of any ******** – politics, education, administration, original literature, and so on.
******** planning (dubbed “deliberate ******** change” by Holmes (chapter 5, p. 114)
Planning for a national official ********
Form, functions, and attitudes
1- Selection : choosing the variety or code to be developed.
2- Codification: standardizing its structural or linguistic features. This kind of 'linguistic processing' is sometimes called corpus planning.
3- Elaboration: extending its function for use in new domains. This involves developing the necessary linguistic resources for handling new concepts and con****s.
4- Securing its acceptance: the status of the new variety is important, and so people's attitudes to the variety being developed must be considered. Steps may be needed to enhance its prestige, for instance, and to encourage people to develop pride in the langue or loyalty towards it.
******** planning is defined most simply as deliberate ******** change. This covers a wide variety of activities including the introduction of new labels for fruit, the reform of spelling systems, and the provision of advice on non-sexist terminology such as Ms and chairperson. It also includes the development of national ********s and standard dialects. ******** planners generally focus on specific ******** problems. Their role is to develop a policy of ******** use which will solve the problems appropriately in particular speech communities.
طبعا هناك فرق كبير بين STANDARD ******** AND VARNACUALAR ********
و الطبقه المتعلمه في القرن 18 و19 كانو يستخدمونه ليظهرو مدى تعلمهم و طبقتهم
لكن في الوقت الحالي إنهم يستخدمون ال VARNACULAR ******** في الحياه اليوميه و محاوله إيجاد طريقه للتواصل بين الجماعات التي لا تتحدث نفس اللغه
محاوله إيجاد لغه موحده ومشتركه بين جميع الدول تحتاج الي الكثير من الخطوات من الفلاسفه والكتاب و النقاد حتى يتم تشجيع الناس عليها و معرفه مدى قبولها لدى المجتمع و مدى فعاليتها في حل المشاكل اللغويه في جميع المجتمعات
العنوان : جروب 2007_2008 تفضلو لنتعاون سويه
بتاريخ : 05-11-2007 الساعة : 03:02 AM
العنوان : ملخص شابتر 1
العنوان : مهم جدا ملخص الكتاب التاني
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